References

Palecek J, Paleckova V, Willis WD (2001) Dermorphin-saporin conjugate relieves inflammatory pain after peripheral application. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 508.10. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: Opioid receptors have been shown to exist in specific population of DRG neurons signaling nociceptive information from peripheral tissues. In our study, we attempted to selectively destroy these neurons by using a peripheral application of the mu opioid agonist Dermorphin conjugated to ribosome inactivating toxin Saporin (DERM-SAP, Advanced Targeting Systems) in order to alleviate inflammatory pain. Intraarticular or intraplantar injection of carrageenan or CFA was used to induce inflammation in rats. The DERM-SAP conjugate was injected into the inflamed area 12-48h later. Responses of the animals to mechanical and thermal stimuli were tested before and after the inflammation and up to 21 days after the DERM-SAP application. The rats developed heat hyperalgesia in the affected paw 24 hours after the intraarticular CFA injection. In the saline injected group the hyperalgesia persisted for up to 19 days, but in the DERM-SAP injected group the signs of hyperalgesia were improving from day 7. Also mechanical allodynia tested with a VF filament (1.1g) was alleviated in the DERM-SAP group. In the carrageenan group, the DERM-SAP treatment decreased the heat hyperalgesia and prevented the development of hyperalgesia after repeated carrageenan application, 21days after the DERM-SAP treatment. Postmortem evaluation with a specific antibody showed presence of saporin in the DRG neurons. Our results show that peripheral application of DERM-SAP relieves inflammatory pain and suggest that peripheral application of neuropeptides conjugated to cell toxins or other substances such as antisense probes could be a useful tool for treating pain of peripheral origin. Supported by NIH grants NS09743 and NS11253.

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Greco MA, Salin-Pascual R, Gerashchenko D, Blanco-Centurion C, Shiromani PJ (2001) Effects of 192-saporin lesion of the basal forebrain on sleep homeostasis and adenosine receptor (A1) mRNA levels. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 523.12. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: Adenosine is hypothesized to be a mediator of sleep since adenosine levels in the basal forebrain increase after wakefulness and decrease following sleep. The inhibitory effect of adenosine on wake-active cholinergic neurons is thought to be mediated by the A-1 receptor subtype. We hypothesized that if adenosine inhibition of cholinergic neurons takes place via A-1A receptors on cholinergic neurons, the elimination of cholinergic cells should affect sleep homeostasis. To test this hypothesis, 192-saporin was used to selectively lesion basal forebrain cholinergic cells. 48h baseline sleep was recorded from male Sprague Dawley rats. Subsequently, the rats were kept awake for 12h and 24h recovery sleep was recorded. 192-saporin (4 ug) was then administered ICV. The rats were again continuously recorded for 3 weeks after the injection, a 12h prolonged waking period and during a 24h recovery sleep period. Brain sections processed for visualization of A1 mRNA and/or immunohistochemistry revealed that both ChAT- and parvalbumin-positive cells contained A-1A mRNA. 192-SAP eliminated ChAT immunoreactive cells in the basal forebrain. There were no differences in sleep-wakefulness up to 3 weeks after drug administration, a finding consistent with previous reports. In addition, there were no changes in recovery sleep following prolonged waking in lesioned rats. These results indicate that the cholinergic basal forebrain groups are not the primary mediators of wakefulness or of sleep homeostasis. We suggest that the effects of adenosine are mediated via binding to non-cholinergic neurons.

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Shafi R, Berntson GG, Sarter M, Saurer T, Spino M (2001) Basal forebrain cholinergic system: Cortical activation, sleep/waking EEG and evoked potentials. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 533.16. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: The role of the basal forebrain cholinergic system in cognitive functions such as arousal, attention and memory has been well documented. The purpose of the present study was to further elucidate the role of the basal forebrain in regulating cortical states and processes that may underlie these functions. Selective lesions of the cholinergic neurons of the basal forebrain were made using the immunotoxin 192 IgG-saporin, which selectively targets the p75 receptor on cholinergic neurons. The effects of these lesions on sleep structure and EEG activity and on afferent priming of cortical reactivity was evaluated. Specifically, we monitored behavioral activity and sleep states and examined the frequency distribution of power distribution in EEG frequency bands during these states. In separate sessions, we also recorded cerebral event-related potentials to auditory stimuli (100 ms, 1 K Hz at 60, 70 and 80 db) after intraperitoneal administration of saline or epinephrine (0.5 mg/kg, which we have previously found to result in priming or enhancement of the auditory evoked response). Compared to controls, lesioned animals showed a reduction in spontaneous activity, reduced power in higher frequency (primarily gamma) EEG bands during both sleep and waking, and altered sleep structure. In addition, lesioned animals displayed lower amplitude auditory evoked potentials and a loss of epinephrine-priming of the evoked response. Results support the view that the basal forebrain cholinergic system may play an important role in cortical activation and the regulation of sleep/waking states, as well as in cortical processing and its enhancement by visceral priming.

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Zambon NJ, Nagle R, Pokala V, Gibbs RB, Johnson DA (2001) Low dose 192 IgG-saporin selectively destroys basal forebrain cholinergic neurons and impairs acquisition of a spatial memory task. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 534.13. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: We previously showed that a high dose (1 μg) of the selective cholinergic immunotoxin 192 IgG-saporin (SAP), injected into the medial septum (MS) of Sprague-Dawley rats, impeded acquisition of a delayed matching-to-position (DMP) spatial memory task, whereas injections of ibotenate (5 μg in 1 μL) did not. The present study examined the effects of lower doses of SAP (0.22 and 0.45 μg in 1 μl) on DMP acquisition. Animals received either SAP or vehicle injected directly into the MS. Two weeks later, animals were food deprived and trained to the DMP task. Rats received 8 trial pairs/day until they reached a criterion of 15/16 correct choices. Seven days later, post-criteria testing for retention was performed. Brain tissues were analyzed for choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) activity, or were processed for immunohistochemical detection of ChAT and parvalbumin. Control rats required significantly fewer days (13.1) to reach criterion than rats that received 0.22 (22.0 days) or 0.45 (20.1 days) μg SAP. There was no effect of SAP treatment on post-criteria testing. Injections of SAP produced marked depletion of ChAT-positive cells and ChAT activity, but no apparent depletion of parvalbumin staining in the MS. In contrast, ibotenate injections used in the previous study were shown to produce marked depletion of parvalbumin staining in the MS, but no significant cognitive impairment. The data suggest that selective destruction of cholinergic neurons in the MS significantly impairs acquisition of the DMP task.

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Chou TC, Gerashchenko D, Saper CB, Shiromani PJ (2001) Loss of histaminergic neurons does not produce hypersomnolence. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 522.21. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: Electrolytic lesions of the posterior hypothalamus (PH) produce long-lasting hypersomnolence (1,2). The PH contains histaminergic neurons in the tuberomammillary nucleus (TMN) that project diffusely throughout the brain. Because histamine promotes wakefulness while antihistamines are sedating, the TMN is thought to be critically involved in maintaining wakefulness. To test this hypothesis, we placed cell-specific lesions in the PH and TMN of rats and measured sleep-wake behavior. Lesions were produced using either the conventional excitotoxin ibotenic acid, or the novel toxin orexin (hypocretin) conjugated to the ribosomal toxin saporin (ORX/HCRT-SAP). Ibotenic acid injections were ineffective at lesioning the TMN; most histaminergic neurons were selectively spared while neurons in surrounding regions such as the mammillary bodies and supramammillary area were completely lesioned. In contrast, ORX/HCRT-SAP injections into the TMN lesioned up to 95% of histaminergic neurons, as determined by adenosine-deaminase immunostaining, with a similar loss of neurons in adjacent areas. Surprisingly, neither group of rats showed changes in NREM or REM sleep time or circadian distribution of sleep relative to saline-injected controls for up to 2 weeks after surgery. Thus, the waking state may not be critically dependent on the PH or TMN in rats. Further research is needed to reconcile the sedating effects of antihistamines with the current findings. 1. Ranson 1939, Archiv Neurol and Psychiatry 41(1):1-23. 2. Swett and Hobson 1968, Arch Ital Biol 106(3):283-293.

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Sherren N, Pappas BA (2001) Behavioural and neurochemical changes associated with single and combined acetylcholine and dopamine lesions in neonatal rats. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 539.5. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: The functional outcomes of neonatal ACh or DA lesions are frequently less severe or qualitatively different from those seen in adult rats, and may be due to compensatory neurochemical changes. Given that these transmitter systems interact in the adult brain and that ACh and DA hypofunction may underlie the cognitive and motor disabilities seen in Rett syndrome, we hypothesized that combined neonatal ACh/DA lesions may produce a profile of neurochemical changes and behavioural impairments which are more severe or distinct from that caused by either lesion alone. Rats were lesioned at postnatal day 7 with 192 IgG-saporin (ACh rats), 6-OHDA with NE receptor blockade (DA rats), or both (ACh/DA rats). Behavioural testing occurred at 4 months of age. In the open field, only ACh/DA rats exhibited locomotor hyperactivity whereas all lesioned groups exhibited reduced exploratory behaviour. Neither DA nor ACh/DA rats were able to solve the Morris water maze, however ACh rats were indistinguishable from controls. 192 IgG-saporin treatment produced a 75% decrease in hippocampal ChAT activity, and cortical decreases of 30%, 70% and 40% in the frontal/cingulate (FC), retrosplenial (RS) and partietotemporal (PT) regions respectively. 6-OHDA treatment produced a 90% decrease in striatal DA levels and a 75% decrease in FC cortex. Interestingly PT DA levels were 68% higher in ACh rats but 47% lower in ACh/DA rats compared to control, while DA rats showed a decrease which was not significantly different from control. Thus sparing of spatial learning ability in ACh rats may be mediated by increases in PT DA levels, whereas combined ACh/DA lesions exacerbate DA loss in this region.

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Pau K (2001) Immunolesioning of brainstem DBH neurons on the mating-induced LH and prolactin surge in the rabbit. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 466.7. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: Coitus induces a surge release of norepinephrine (NE) that is accompanied by a preovulatory gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)/luteinizing hormone (LH) surge. Prazosin, an alpha-1 adrenergic antagonist, attenuates the GnRH/LH surge, and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene expression in brainstem NE areas increases within 30 min after coitus. Here, we determined the coitus-induced LH/prolactin surge after specific lesioning of dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DBH) neurons in the brainstem with monoclonal anti-DBH sera conjugated with the ribosomal cytotoxin saporin (DBH-SAP). Female NZW rabbits received 3rd cerebroventricular injection (Day 0) of either DBH-SAP (20 µg, n=4) or SAP (3 µg, n=4). On day 14, the four DBH-SAP females were paired with stud males, but none of them mated. After daily injection of estradiol benzoate (EB, 3 µg) for 3 days, all eight females mated. Blood samples were taken once before, and at 10-min intervals for 4 hours after, coitus. Brainstems were prepared for immunocytochemical detection of DBH and TH. Coitus increased both LH and prolactin release in either DBH-SAP or SAP animals. However, postcoital LH and prolactin levels were 55% lower and 50% higher, respectively, in DBH-SAP rabbits than in SAP animals. The number of DBH neurons was near zero in the A6 and reduced by 80% in the A1 and 70% in the A2 noradrenergic areas in DBH-SAP animals. The number of TH neurons was reduced by 95% and 30% in the A6 and A1 areas, respectively, and did not change in the A2 area. The results suggest that the presence of intact brainstem NE neurons are critical for sexual performance and production of normal LH/prolactin surge after coitus in female rabbits.

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Ricceri L, Scattoni ML, Calamandrei G (2001) Neonatal cholinergic lesions alter reactivity to a GABAergic agonist in 18-day-old rats. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 541.14. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: We have shown previously that neonatal intracerebroventricular (icv) injections of the selective cholinergic immunotoxin 192 IgG-saporin on postnatal day (pnd) 7induces learning impairments on pnd 15 and disruption of reactivity to spatial novelty on pnd 54. The same neonatal treatment also induces a permanent cholinergic loss in both hippocampus and neocortex. In the present study we analyzed behavioral effects induced by a GABAergic drug (muscimol, a GABAa receptor agonist) in rats neonatally lesioned with 192 IgG-saporin (icv on pnd 7). On pnd 18 192 IgG-saporin lesioned and sham rats were injected with muscimol (0.1, 0.5 mg/kg ip) and placed in an open field arena for 20 min; locomotion, wall rearing and rearing responses were measured. In sham animals, as expected, 0.1 muscimol decreased locomotion, wall rearing and rearing responses. In saporin lesioned animals 0.1 muscimol increased locomotion, left wall rearing responses unchanged and decreased only rearing responses. In a 60s hot-plate test, 0.1 muscimol induced comparable analgesic responses in both sham and saporin-lesioned animals. The 0.5 muscimol dose resulted cataleptic for both saporin and sham lesioned rats. Neonatal saporin per se also reduced wall rearing and rearing responses. These data suggest that only in selective behavioral patterns — associated with locomotion and exploration of the environment — reactivity to a GABAergic agonist is reduced following neonatal cholinergic lesions, probably because of a decrease of GABAa receptors in the medial septal nucleus.

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Schultz JA, Butt AE, George CL, Garraghty PE (2001) The effects of cortical cholinergic depletion on the performance of adult rats in an appetitive-to-aversive transfer task. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 313.3. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: The acetylcholinergic (ACh) projections from the nucleus basalis magnocellularis (NBM) to the neocortex have been implicated in attentional processes. In a test of the hypothesis that only complex learning is affected by damage to this cholinergic system, we examined the effects of NBM lesions in an appetitive-to-aversive transfer learning task. Rats were trained using a tone to signal the availability of food reward for lever-pressing before being transferred to an avoidance learning task where the same tone signaled foot-shock that could be escaped or avoided by lever-pressing. A second experiment examined learning in the aversive context only. For both experiments, male Long-Evans rats received bilateral infusions of the immunotoxin192 IgG saporin into the NBM, sham surgery, or no treatment. Acquisition in the appetitive phase of the appetitive-to-aversive transfer task was normal in the NBM lesion group. However, transfer performance in the aversive task was impaired in NBM lesion group; NBM-lesioned rats acquired the avoidance response more slowly and had lower asymptotic avoidance rates than controls. NBM-lesioned rats tested only in the aversive task performed normally. Thus, the deficit in avoidance learning observed in the NBM-lesioned rats previously trained in the appetitive task was not due simply to an inability to learn in the aversive context. Impairments in transfer learning are instead argued to reflect the relative complexity of the appetitive-to-aversive transfer task as compared to either task alone.

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Yurrita MM, Givens B (2001) Effect of chlordiazepoxide infusions into the basal forebrain on medial prefrontal neural activity of rats during sustained visual attention. Neuroscience 2001 Abstracts 313.4. Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA.

Summary: There is extensive evidence suggesting a role for the basal forebrain (BF) cholinergic system in attentional processing. In particular, cortical acetylcholine has been shown to modulate performance in a sustained visual attention task, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) neural activity, and distractor-related alterations in mPFC neural activity. In order to further characterize the role of the BF in modulation of attention, the effect of direct infusions of the benzodiazepine receptor agonist chlordiazepoxide (CDP) into the BF was investigated. Specifically, this experiment sought to study the effect of two different doses of CDP (20 and 40µg/hemisphere) on mPFC neural activity of rats performing a task that requires them to discriminate between the presence or absence of short, unpredictable stimuli under testing conditions that vary the level of attentional demand. The overall firing rate of mPFC units recorded during performance in the task was not affected by bilateral infusions of either dose of CDP. There was, however, a differential effect of the two doses on the number of units that show an increase in firing rate during the presentation of the distractor. The high dose of CDP increased the percentage of single units that show a distractor-related increase in firing rate, while the low dose had no effect. In order to determine whether the effect of CDP on mPFC neural activity is mediated via cholinergic projections to cortex, the effect of bilateral CDP infusions into the BF on mPFC neural activity will be studied after local cortical deafferentation of the recording area using 192 IgG-saporin. Supported by: NS37026.

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